At at time when Spain was colonizing the Americas, there were many moral questions that came with exploiting the Native populations and their lands. One prominent voice against Spain’s actions was Francisco de Vitoria. Sometimes called a father of international law (though modern scholars would argue it wasn’t truly international law as we think about it today), Vitoria worked to define what justified war and when Spain could legitimately use force against the Natives of the Americas. His ideas, along with those of his contemporaries, helped to define the relations between nations.
It isn’t clear where Francisco de Vitoria was born. Some references say Burgos, others say he was born in Vitoria, Araba. It also isn’t clear when he was born – maybe 1483, maybe 1486, maybe as late as 1492-93. Regardless, his father Pedro de Vitoria was from Araba. His mother, Catalina de Compludo, was from a noble family, just like his father. A native of Burgos, she had Jewish ancestry.
In 1504, Vitoria became a Dominican, studying at least some of the time in Paris. In 1516 he started teaching himself, returning to Spain to teach in Valladolid in 1522. In 1524, he was elected chair of theology of the University of Salamanca. He would spend the rest of his life in Salamanca, in the Dominican monastery of San Esteban.
It was in Salamanca that Vitoria really established a name for himself. In 1538-39, he wrote a treatise on the legality/illegality of war and what would justify war. Vitoria expanded upon ideas developed by Thomas Aquinas, arguing that the only times war was justified were against aggression or to right a great wrong. He said that innocents should only be harmed when it was impossible to distinguish them from combatants. He also said that if one’s conscience said that the war was wrong, he or she should not participate.
He also wrote, after being consulted by the king of Spain, on the status of the Native Peoples of the Americas. He argued, based on the ideas of the dignity of man, that the Natives were not slaves, that they had rights to their property, and that Spain was violating their rights. He also argued that they should not be forcibly converted to Christianity. In his view, Spain had not satisfied the conditions for just war.
He also made significant advances in the classroom, requiring students to take notes at a time when this was not the norm. His teaching style was widely recognized and spread to other institutions of learning. In the end, some 5000 students passed through his classroom.
A full list of all of Buber’s Basque Facts of the Week can be found in the Archive.
Because of the mountainous landscape of the Basque Country, caves play an important role in the historical and mythological context of the culture. The goddess Mari, for example, was said to inhabit various caves in the rugged mountains. But so did people, the ancient people who lived in the Basque Country and left their mark with paintings on the walls of some of those caves. Santimamiñe is perhaps the most famous, but there are many others. One of those is Ekain.
Paintings of horses (and bison top right) at Ekainberri, replicas of those found in Ekain itself. Photo from Wikimedia.
The Ekain cave, which sits in the mountain of the same name and is part of the jurisdiction of Deba, was discovered on June 8, 1969 by Rafael Rezabal and Andoni Albizuri, members of the Antxieta cultural society. Or rather, it was rediscovered, as clearly humans had found the cave before, albeit millennia before. The cave, burrowing into a limestone cliff, is near the village of Sastarrain where two streams, full of trout, meet.
The walls of the cave are covered in drawings from the Magdalenian period of the Upper Paleolithic time – roughly 17,000 to 12,000 years ago. The drawings themselves come in many forms. Some are very simple, consisting of just a few strokes, but others are more elaborate. Most are of animals. Different parts of the cave have more of one type of animal than another and thus have been given names to reflect that diversity: Auntzei, “goat shed;” Zaldei, “stable;” Artzei, “bear cabin;” and Azken-zaldei, “last stable.” Of the 70 figures that have been identified, 64 are painted and 6 are engraved into the stone.
These figures are mostly painted in black, red, or both colors. The black is made with charcoal or manganese and the red comes from limonite, a natural iron oxide mineral.
There is also an image of a bird, found engraved on the rib bone of what might have been a bison, which is unusual for cave art.
Archeologists, led by José Miguel Barandiarán, also discovered hearths in the “lobby” of the caves, along with materials likely used by the artists to decorate the harder-to-reach interiors. This suggests that Paleolithic hunters used the cave for shelter. The earlier inhabitants likely used the caves in the summer and consisted on a diet of fawns and hinds. Later ones also hunted mountain goats
The archeological and historical importance of the cave was recognized in 2008, when it was added to the UNESCO World Heritage list.
The actual cave is not open to the public, to preserve the art from human traffic. Instead, as has been common practice for such sites, a replica was made, named Ekainberri – or new Ekain. At Ekainberri, not only can one see reproductions of this prehistoric art, but visitors can also partake in other activities that reflect life in the Paleolithic, including making their own cave paintings, making fire with sticks and stones, and hunting with spears.
A full list of all of Buber’s Basque Facts of the Week can be found in the Archive.
The cardinal directions are so ingrained in our culture, language, and identity. Whether one is from the northwest or the southeast, the west coast or east coast, these directions almost define us. And they are relative. I might be from the northwest of the United States, but I’m also from southern Idaho. At a higher level, I’m from the western and northern hemispheres. These words are such a part of our everyday life, we likely never give any thought where they came from. Well, here’s where they come from, but in Basque.
The four main cardinal directions are iparra (north), ekialdea (east), hegoa (south), and mendebaldea (west). Larry Trask, in his Etymological Dictionary of Basque, discusses the origins of each of these, most of which are connected to the directional winds:
iparra, or in its indefinite form ipar, is a word native to Basque. While its origins aren’t completely clear, some have suggested it derives from ibar, the Basque word for valley. The logic here is that ibar-haize, meaning valley wind, is also the north wind and so ipar arose from ibar. For fishermen, ipar sometimes means east. ipar haizea, the north wind, is cold. ipar beltza, or black north, blows from the northwest while ipar zuria, the white north, blows from the northeast.
ekialdea is the most transparent. It is a compound of eki and aldea, or sun and side, meaning literally sunny spot.
hegoa is less clear. It might be a native word, but variants used in some parts of the Basque Country egoe and egoi suggest it might not be (native words tend not to have those extra vowels). Possibly it comes from the Latin aqualem (watery) through Béarnais. This would suggest an origin meaning “watery wind,” which aligns with the saying Hegoak hegala urean du (The south wind has a wing in the water). That said, there is a Basque deity, Hegoi or Egoi, that was the god of the south wind… Just like the north wind, hego beltza (black south) blows from the southwest and hego zuria (white south) blows from the southeast.
mendebal is of Roman origin, from something like the French vent d’aval, meaning valley wind. It is very similar to the Spanish vendaval.
Intermediate directions are described by compounds of the principal directions. For example, northwest is designated by ipar-mendebaldea while south-southeast is hego-hego-ekialdea.
The compass rose is called a haize-arrosa in Basque, or wind rose, which is another term for a compass rose in English too.
A full list of all of Buber’s Basque Facts of the Week can be found in the Archive.
The Basque Country has seen more than its fair share of conflict. At the cross roads between the Iberian peninsula and the mainland of Europe, powers were always vying for control even as the Basques themselves tried to maintain some semblance of independence or made alliances with one side or another. The Kingdom of Nafarroa was often at the center of these conflicts, with the Fortress of Amaiur, amongst others, being one of the last holdouts against the conquering invaders.
The Fortress of Amaiur as it stands today. Photo by Xabier Cañas, found on Wikipedia.
The name of the fortress and town come from the Basque word Amaia, which means boundary or limit. The town is first attested in documents from the twelfth century, where it is noted as a noble district of the Kingdom of Nafarroa.
The fortress was built sometime in the twelfth century and became one of the most important strongholds of the Kingdom of Nafarroa. Indeed, it was one of the last points of resistance in the conquest of the Kingdom. Castilla invaded Nafarroa in July, 1512, and quickly took Pamplona with little resistance. Castilian envoys were sent to the primary fortresses of the region demanding their surrender. Several, including Amaiur, refused. However, by August, most of the rest of Iberian Nafarroa – the part of Nafarroa in the Iberian peninsula – had fallen.
After at least one failed attempt at reconquering Nafarroa, King Henry II of Nafarroa led another attempt, this one successful, and by May, 1521, all of Nafarroa had been reconquered. However, the victory was short-lived as Castilla, having just put down another revolt, counterattacked. Henry’s forces were defeated in the Battle of Esquiroz in June, 1521.
Henry tried one more time, sending forces in September. They laid siege to the fortress at Amaiur, and the Castilians left in exchange for free passage to Castilla. Again, Castilla responded, with forces from Bizkaia, Gipuzkoa, and Nafarroa itself along with Castilla and Aragon. The Fortress of Amaiur, the last bastion of Nafarroa, fell on July 19, 1522. It had been defended by 200 knights. 39 survived and were taken prisoner to Pamplona. One of those defenders was Francis Xavier.
Amaiur, or Maya as it is known in Spanish (officially, the town is called Amaiur/Maya today), was also the site of a battle during the Peninsular War. On July 25, 1813, French troops attacked the British forces stationed in Maya. In the end, while the French outnumber the British, thanks in part to reinforcements, the British were able to escape.
The fortress now stands in ruins, destroyed in the Battle of Amaiur in 1522. In 1922, a monument to the defenders was established, which was blown up in 1931. It was re-erected in 1982. In 2007, the city installed a monument to the Unknown Resistant. All of these are in recognition to those that fought for Nafarroa’s independence against Castilla.
A full list of all of Buber’s Basque Facts of the Week can be found in the Archive.
One of the most eye-opening experiences when I first visited the Basque Country was the music. Growing up in the Basque culture of the American West, I was familiar with some of the traditional folk music (though never enough to truly appreciate it) but I had no idea about the radical rock that permeated modern Basque culture. This was a music that spoke to me, even if I couldn’t understand much of the lyrics. Two bands in particular made an impression on me – Kortatu and Negu Gorriak – both fronted by one of the Basque Country’s most popular singers – Fermin Muguruza.
Fermin Muguruza in concert in Montevideo in 2004. Photo from Wikipedia.
Fermin Muguruza Ugarte was born on April 20, 1963 in Irun, Gipuzkoa. He is the middle of three brothers, all three of which are musicians. As a child, he didn’t learn Euskara as it was prohibited in Franco’s Spain. In fact, he learned the language during tours when he was part of Kortatu. The choice of Basque as his language of expression was deliberate, a political choice in support of Basque independence.
With his brother Iñigo, Fermin was one of the founders of Kortatu – he played guitar and was the lead vocalist. He was inspired to start the group after seeing The Clash in Donostia. Founded in 1984, Kortatu was one of the pioneering bands of Basque radical rock. In particular, the band introduced ska and dub to Spain. Their earlier records had songs in both Spanish and Basque, but with Kolpez Kolpe, everything was in Basque.
After Kortatu dissolved in 1988, Fermin and Iñigo, again with others, formed their next band, Negu Gorriak in 1990. Negu Gorriak was one of the most influential Basque bands of the 1990s. They incorporated elements of rap, more hardcore rock, and Latin influences in their sound. In particular, they were praised for mixing different styles and sounds into a coherent whole. They were sued by a Guardia Civil officer who accused them of libel for a song where they suggested he was involved in drug trafficking. It wasn’t until 2001 that Negu Gorriak was acquitted by the courts. The band was very political, for example voicing support for members of ETA that were in prison and singing about fighting against the state. Their stance softened after a tour in El Salvador when they began singing more about dialog.
When Negu Gorriak broke up in 1996 (though they played three concerts together after being acquitted), Fermin began a solo career that included collaborations with musicians from around the world. His solo work veered more towards ska and reggae than either Kortatu or Negu Gorriak had. More on his current projects can be found on his website.
Fermin and other Basque groups faced boycotts in the early 2000s for their suspected sympathies for ETA. Fermin came out and said that, while he was “pro-independence and left-wing, but that does not mean that I am in favor of violence.” His political activism was also on display in 2002 when he accepted the award for Best Song in Basque and dedicated it to Egunkaria, the Basque-language newspaper that had been shutdown by the Spanish government.
A full list of all of Buber’s Basque Facts of the Week can be found in the Archive.
Every culture has their goblins – little creatures that make mischief. The Basques are no different. They have a variety of such creatures that can both help people but also cause problems. At the same time, there are humans that can also be forces for good and evil, using their powers to help or harm others. In some stories and across different places, these characters can mix. The intxisua are one example, where in some places they are goblins and others they are warlocks or male witches.
A group of intxisuak roaming the streets of Oiartzun during their fiesta. Photo from Wikimedia.
Intxisua (or intxisu, intxiso, intxixu, intxitxu, intxusi, itxiso) are mythological creatures that form part of the local folklore of Oiartzun and Ataun, in Gipuzkoa, where the creatures were said to live. Depending on the story, the intxisua was either a male witch or warlock, an elf, or a goblin. They can also take the form of animals, depending on the story.
In the stories from Ataun, it seems the intxisua was the husband of a witch – a witch himself, but always connected to his wife. Like most witches, he could make predictions, perform healing practices, and act as a counselor to his neighbors.
On the other hand, the intxisuak of Oiartzun were more like elves or goblins. These intxisuak hid in caves, living in holes in the rock surrounded by their wealth. They were said to have built some of the cromlechs and megaliths of the area, a feat also often attributed to the Jentilak. They spent the whole year in the mountains, except for carnival when they would descend and take over the town.
These Oiartzun intxisuak were short, barely a meter or yard tall. They were thin, dark-skinned, and covered in body hair, including a thick beard. As builders of the cromlechs, they were very strong, though in some accounts their strength only came at night.
The intxisuak are still evoked even today. When a dog barks for no reason or a strange sound is heard at night, people blame the intxisuak. When a kid is being bad, they say “Intxisua baino bihurriagoa zara” – you are naughtier than the intxisua.
The intxisuak live on today, as part of the Ihotik fiestas of Oiartzun that happen the week before carnival. Along with many other colorful characters, people dress up as intxisuak, one for each neighborhood of the town, and take over the town hall.
A full list of all of Buber’s Basque Facts of the Week can be found in the Archive.
Women enjoy more opportunity now than they have for quite some time. With the rise of the Church and capitalism, women were marginalized, but before that, they held important role in professions such as health care. Martija de Jauregui wasn’t necessarily a pioneer – she just practiced her craft as she knew it. However, she was eventually forced aside despite the renown she had gained for her skills. Today she is viewed as an icon of women’s rights.
A mural of Martija de Jauregui in the Iruñeko Aitzindarien Parkea. Photo from Wikidata.
Martija de Jauregui was born sometime in the mid 1500s, likely in Nafarroa, though next to nothing is known about her early life. Her grandfather, Dr. Cartajena, had been a doctor in Lekeitio, so possibly she was born in Bizkaia. In any case, by 1570 she is known to have been practicing medicine in Nafarroa, specifically in Estella and Pamplona/Iruña. By 1580, she was in Uharte-Arakile, having moved there with her husband, where she continued to practice medicine.
Though she didn’t know how to read nor write, she had learned much about the practice of medicine from her grandfather and she specialized in women’s health. By special dispensation from the chief doctor of Pamplona, she was given permission to practice medicine in the region.
Her remedies were primarily plasters and concoctions she made with local plants she gathered in places like the mountains of Aralar and had blessed in one of the churches during special fiestas such as San Juan. She also recommended masses and prayers to help alleviate symptoms and cure her patients.
It was about this time that the Renaissance changed everything. Medicine became more professionalized and dominated by men. Women such as Martija were marginalized. Though she was well regarded for her medical prowess, she was eventually prosecuted by the Inquisition and medical professionals for effectively practicing medicine without a license or title and forced to abandon her profession.
Today, as a woman who was cutoff from opportunities for schooling and practicing her profession, Martija is recognized as an icon of women’s rights. One of the giants in the festival of Uharte-Arakile is dedicated to her and she is featured in the Parque de las Pioneras in Pamplona.
A full list of all of Buber’s Basque Facts of the Week can be found in the Archive.
If there is a defining trait of the Basques, it might be their work ethic, their willingness to do the hard jobs. That’s one reason they were such great sheepherders – they would go into the hills for months at a time, often with little experience, and just get the job done. Their propensity for hard work is even more remarkable when you consider the rough land they had to work at home, tilling the rugged earth almost by hand. Their primary tool – the laia – has become a defining symbol of that hard working life.
The laia is a type of spade consisting of a long wooden handle and two prongs or teeth made out of metal, usually iron or steel. The handle effectively extends from one of the teeth, forming an ‘h’ shape. A person would first raise the laia above their head and then drive it into the ground. He or she would then push on the ledge of the ‘h’ to drive it further into the ground and then the push the handle down to turn the soil. One person would use two laia in this way, to more effectively work the land. A team of people would work together to till a complete a field. Neighbors would help neighbors, trading turns to till each other’s fields.
The laia had an advantage over the plow for some areas in that it can be used to turn the soil deeper than a plow and is easier to use in places with an appreciable slope.
In vineyards, they would also be used to make holes in which to plant vines.
There are two main types of laia, adapted to the local land, though a near infinite variety exists. In Nafarroa, the handle is longer but the teeth are shorter (about one foot long) while in Bizkaia and Gipuzkoa, the laia tends to have longer prongs or teeth (about 2.5 feet long). This is because the ground is softer in the coastal provinces and thus longer teeth can penetrate the earth and aerate it better.
In Olite, the entrance to the church, which was built in the 13th century, has an image of a man using the laia to till the soil. While we don’t know when the laia was first developed, this highlights that it isn’t a new tool.
In the towns of Artajona and Puente la Reina, in Nafarroa, one way they are keeping the traditions of the laia are to hold races. The laia are used like mini-stilts – people step up on two laia and then, holding the relatively short handles in their hands, they race down the streets.
A full list of all of Buber’s Basque Facts of the Week can be found in the Archive.
Basques played a significant role in the exploration and conquest of the Americas. Lope Agirre is perhaps one of the most notorious of those Basques. Originally from the province of Gipuzkoa, he was enticed by the potential riches the Americas promised. He rose to power and even tried to declare war with and independence from the crown. A violent man himself, he met a violent end at the age of 50.
Lope Agirre was born in the town of Oñati, Gipuzkoa on November 8, 1510. He was the son of a nobleman, but not much else is known. In fact, there are debates as to both his birthplace and birth year. What is clear, however, is that he found himself in Sevilla when Hernando (or Francisco) Pizarro returned from Peru with stories of vast wealth. Agirre signed up for an expedition and arrived in Peru around 1536.
He began his time in the Americas as a horse tamer in Cuzco, where he was an alderman, and was part of the founding of La Plata.
In 1544, viceroy Blasco Núñez Vela was sent from Spain to implement the New Laws and to free the native slaves. However, many conquistadors resisted these changes, going so far as to imprison Núñez Vela. Agirre allied himself with Núñez Vela, taking part in an effort to free the viceroy.
The viceroy was eventually defeated and Agirre traveled across the region, to Nicaragua and back to Peru. There he was arrested and tried for breaking the laws that protected the natives. He was sentenced to a public flogging. Once the presiding judge’s term ended, Agirre tracked him for three years as he fled, walking some 3,700 miles barefoot. Finally, Agirre found him in Cuzco where Agirre stabbed him with his dagger.
In 1560, Agirre joined the expedition of Pedro de Ursúa to look for El Dorado, the City of Gold. He took part in the overthrow and killing of Ursúa, taking over the expedition. He carried out several more assassinations to keep his power. When they reached the Atlantic, wreaking havoc on the native populations in their wake, he had his men declare that he was prince of Peru. This is considered the first act of independence in the Americas. He took island of Margarita and tried to take Panama. When his rebellion against the Spanish Crown failed, he killed his own daughter Elvira, who had accompanied him on the expedition, as he couldn’t bear to see someone he so loved fall into the hands of such vile people.
Agirre was captured by Spanish forces and shot by his own soldier. His body was beheaded and cut into quarters and sent to neighboring towns as a warning against revolt.
Agirre was known for his cruelty and harshness. He called himself the “Wrath of God, Prince of Freedom.” Others called him the “Madman of Onate.”
A full list of all of Buber’s Basque Facts of the Week can be found in the Archive.
