Basque Fact of the Week, People

Basque Fact of the Week: Saint Rictrudis of Vasconia

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We are all familiar with the two big Basque saints – Saint Ignatius and Saint Francis Xavier. They feature prominently in Basque culture, serving as the patron saints of Basque provinces, several towns, and even festivals. However, they aren’t the only saints with a Basque connection. Saint Rictrudis is one example of a lesser known Basque saint. While it isn’t clear if she herself may have spoken Euskara or something related, she was born in a region that did.

A 1677 recreation of a meeting of Rictrudis and King Dagobert. Image from Wikipedia.
  • Rictrudis, also known as Rictrude and Rictrudes, was born around the year 612 in Gascony which, at the time, had a very strong Basque character. Indeed, in those days, the region she was born in was known as the Duchy of Vasconia. It isn’t clear what her ancestry was and therefore what her ethnicity was, but she was born in what was likely a Basque-speaking region.
  • What little we know about her and her life is from the hagiography (a biography of a saint) Vita Sanctae Rictrudis, which was written a few centuries after her life and after many documents about her life had been destroyed during Viking raids.
  • She was born in to the local nobility. Her parents were Ernold and Lichia. As opposed to much of the region, which was called pagan by Christian authors to the north and Muslim authors to the south, her parents were “devout,” implying they were Christian.
  • She married a visiting nobleman, Adalbard – when isn’t clear. They had four children. Adalbard was assassinated shortly after the birth of their forth child, and some sources speculate it was Rictrudis’s family that had him assassinated during a trip to Vasconia (after their marriage, the family had relocated to what is now Belgium where Adalbard was from). Presumably, Rictrudis’s family hated that she had married an enemy.
  • After Adalbard’s death, Rictrudis founded an abbey and monastery at Marchiennes. This was against the king’s wishes who wanted her to remarry. There are various political reasons she may have chosen to resist remarrying, including keeping wealth and lands out of the hands of the king.
  • Rictrudis died somewhere between the years of 676 and 691. Her family is perhaps unique in history in that all 6 of its members, Rictrudis, Adalbard, and their four children, were all named saints.
  • In 1898, Txomin Agirre fictionalized her story and the 7th century conversion of the Basques to Christianity, giving her the epitaph Auñamendiko Lorea – Flower of the Pyrenees.

A full list of all of Buber’s Basque Facts of the Week can be found in the Archive.

Primary sources: Estornés Lasa, Bernardo. RICTRUDIS. Auñamendi Encyclopedia, 2026. Available at: https://aunamendi.eusko-ikaskuntza.eus/en/rictrudis/ar-121027/; Rictrude, Wikipedia

Basque Fact of the Week, History

Basque Fact of the Week: A Brief History of the Kingdom of Nafarroa

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In past Facts, I’ve touched on various aspects of the medieval history of the Basques, including the connection to the neighboring Muslim caliphate, the early rulers of Pamplona, and the Battles of Orreaga that set the stage for much of that history. It’s a complicated history, one that I don’t pretend to fully grasp. But at the heart of much of it is the Kingdom of Pamplona, which later became known as the Kingdom of Nafarroa, an ethnically Basque kingdom that unified what we now consider Euskal Herria. Here is a very brief introduction to the Kingdom of Nafarroa – hope I didn’t mess it up!

The Kingdom of Nafarroa in 1190. Image from Wikipedia.
  • The entity known first as the Kingdom of Pamplona and later the Kingdom of Nafarroa was formed in 824, though the political history of the region goes much further back. It was in 824, after the third Battle of Orreaga, that Eneko Arista became the first King of Pamplona. As implied by its original name, the center of the kingdom was Pamplona, or Iruña in Basque.
  • In the beginning, the region around Pamplona was still part of the Córdoba emirate. While the kingdom was allowed to practice Christianity, it had to pay taxes to Córdoba. Eneko rebelled against the emirate in 841, though died before the Muslim leader was forced to submit. Still, the kingdom, sitting between the Muslims to the south and the Christians to the north, was overall accommodating of their neighbors to the south.
  • In 905, the heirs of Eneko were replaced, with Sancho Garcés becoming king. He and his heirs ruled the kingdom until 1234. This new dynasty was much less friendly to the Muslims. One of his heirs, Sancho II, was the first to call himself King of Nafarroa. The increased hostilities with the caliphate led to attacks on Pamplona and the killing of the then king García Sánchez II in the year 1000.
  • His heir, Sancho III, ruled until 1035. When he died, he split the kingdom into three. At the time, the kingdom was at its greatest extent, encompassing much of what is now considered Euskal Hernia: the Spanish province of Nafarroa, the Basque Autonomous Community, and the French region Nafarroa Beherea. It also included La Rioja. After Sancho III’s death and the splitting of the kingdom, the kingdom saw much turbulence, including an assassination of one of the kings.
  • In 1512, the southern part of the kingdom was conquered by Ferdinand II of Aragon and permanently annexed into Castile soon after. There were a few attempts to liberate the kingdom from the control of Castile, in 1516 and 1521, but both failed.
  • The northern part remained an independent kingdom, ruled first by King Henry II and later by his daughter Jeanne III. Her son, Henry III, ascended to the throne of France, becoming Henry IV and joining the kingdom of Nafarroa with that of France. He would be the last independent king of Nafarroa. The title was still used by the kings of France until after the Bourbon Restoration. The Spanish kings still use the title King of Nafarroa.
  • Nafarroa Beherea became part of the Basses-Pyrénées department during the French Revolution.

A full list of all of Buber’s Basque Facts of the Week can be found in the Archive.

Primary sources: Kingdom of Navarre, Wikipedia

Basque Fact of the Week, Folklore, History

Basque Fact of the Week: The Akelarre, or Basque Black Sabbath

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There are so many curious facts surrounding the history of witchcraft in the Basque Country. One is the Akelarre, or what would later be regarded as the Basque Black Sabbath. In reality, the Akelarre was probably just an innocent gathering of people, primarily women, who were healers and herbalists and the Akelarre was a time to celebrate together and to practice traditional Basque customs. On paper, though, it got twisted by men like Pierre de Lancre into an evil mass of subservience to the devil.

Francisco Goya’s Akelarre.
  • The word akelarre comes from “aker” or goat and “larre” or meadow, so literally means the goat’s meadow. There is some speculation that akelarre is a corruption of an earlier word, alkelarre, where alka is the herb Dactylis hispanica. Inquisitors that were trying and persecuting witches could have twisted the word into akelarre and given it the more sinister meaning, though that is speculation. At the same time, a black he-goat in the form of Akerbeltz had a benign origin connected with Mari. A complicated history indeed…
  • The most famous akelarre is a meadow in front of the witches’ cave in Zugarramurdi. In that cave, called Akelarren-leze or the akelarre cave, is where the devil would sit in the form of a goat and receive his subjects. However, akelarre, as places, dot the Basque Country. And there are a lot of other names for the place that witches gathered.
  • The myth is that witches would gather at the akelarre to celebrate their black masses. The devil, in the guise of a he-goat (the benign Akerbeltz was twisted to become something more sinister), presided over the celebration. The devil would receive these witches and warlocks, receive their worship and homage while giving out orders.
  • During the witch trials, many people came forward with fantastical tales of the goings-on at these gatherings. People told of witches flying in the night to attend the akelarre, sometimes transforming into animals. Spells were cast, often malicious spells against neighbors.
  • In her book Invoking the Akelarre, Emma Wilby argues that these stories were essentially what the Inquisitors wanted to hear and that, rather, the people who gathered at the akelarre were, for example, practicing traditional medicine. The stories they told were partially invented from tales they heard from the Americas or from local theater which provided particularly raucous depictions of the devil. So maybe the akelarre was a gathering, but of men and women who were practicing traditional Basque customs, not worshipping the devil.

A full list of all of Buber’s Basque Facts of the Week can be found in the Archive.

Primary sources: Barandiaran Ayerbe, José Miguel de. Akelarre. Auñamendi Encyclopedia. Available at: https://aunamendi.eusko-ikaskuntza.eus/en/akelarre/ar-6376/; Akelarre, Wikipedia; The Witches of Zugarramurdi, Lurkaia

Basque Fact of the Week, News

Basque Fact of the Week: A Ten-Sided Storm on Saturn

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My Basque newsfeed blew up with the news that scientists have discovered an oddly shaped storm on the southern pole of the planet of Saturn. Many different news outlets highlighted this discovery that was led by a scientist from the University of the Basque Country. The universe continues to surprise us.

The evolution and structure of Saturn’s decagon southern storm. Image from the original article at Science Advances (10.1126/sciadv.aee4251).
  • Saturn has been a source of fascination since ancient times. However, it wasn’t until 1655 when Christiaan Huygens pointed his telescope at the planet that we discovered that the planet had rings. While Saturn isn’t the only planet with rings, it certainly has the most dramatic ring structure in our solar system.
  • Since the 1980s, scientists have seen that the northern pole of Saturn exhibits a strangely-shaped storm. Shaped like a hexagon, with six sides, the storm is much larger than Earth – each side of the hexagon is 1200 miles longer than the Earth’s diameter. While we don’t fully understand how such a storm forms, several theories relate it to various behaviors of Saturn’s winds.
  • However, nothing special had been seen on the South Pole until about 2023. Led by Agustín Sánchez-Lavega, a physicist at the University of the Basque Country, a team recently published their discovery of a decagon – a ten-sided – shaped wave on Saturn’s South Pole in the journal Science Advances. They found the strangely-shaped storm by looking at images taken by the Hubble Space Telescope and other ground-based telescopes in 2025 and found evidence that the storm was beginning to take shape back in 2023. But there was no evidence of the storm back in 2017 when the Cassini spacecraft was orbiting the planet.
  • The southern storm is bigger than the northern one and is still growing, suggesting that its shape will continue to evolve in the coming years.
  • Again, we don’t fully know why or how such a storm forms. Sánchez-Lavega says “It may be the result of an instability in the jet stream in which it is situated or a wave forced from deeper levels of the atmosphere.” More work is needed to understand exactly how and why such storms form.
  • For his part, Agustín Sánchez-Lavega was born in Bilbo in 1954. He studied physical sciences at the then University of Bilbao which later became the University of the Basque Country. He joined the university as faculty in 1987 and has been studying the planets ever since. He has won the Premio Euskadi de Investigación and the David Bates Medal from the European Geosciences Union and been named a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union.

A full list of all of Buber’s Basque Facts of the Week can be found in the Archive.

Primary sources: A Mysterious Decagon Unexpectedly Appeared Around Saturn’s South Pole. The Ten-Sided Shape Seems to Be a Wave in the Atmosphere by Margherita Bassi, Smithsonian magazine; Scientists discover a mysterious wave shaped like a decagon in Saturn’s atmosphere by Adam Kovac, Scientific American; Saturn, Wikipedia

Basque Fact of the Week, History

Basque Fact of the Week: The Multiple Battles of Orreaga

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Located in the Pyrenees, the names Orreaga, Errozabal, Ibañetako Mendatea have an important role in Basque history. Ibañetako Mendatea is the actual pass, Errozabal is the broader plains, and Orreaga is the village near the pass. All of these have been used to name multiple battles that happened at this chokepoint between the Iberian Peninsula and the rest of Continental Europe. In English, these battles are called Battle of Roncevaux Pass or, more commonly, Battle of Roncesvalles. They have shaped the history of not only the Basques but all of Europe and have become immortalized in French literature.

Ibañetako Mendatea, or Roncesvalles Pass, the site of the Battles of Orreaga. Photo from Wikipedia.
  • The first recorded Battle of Orreaga, in 778, is the most famous. Charlemagne had been urged by multiple factions of al-Andalus to intervene, in one case to restore Yusuf ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri as governor of Córdoba and in another to split from Córdoba all together and become part of Charlemagne’s empire. Charlemagne agreed. After destroying the walls at Iruña/Pamplona and returning across the Pyrenees back into Francia, his rear guard was ambushed by Basques hiding in the woods near the pass. Most famously, Roland, one of Charlemagne’s military commanders, was killed in the battle. He became the subject of the oldest major literary piece in French literature, The Song of Roland, though in the Song, it was a Muslim force that attacked the rear guard. Regardless, this was Charlemagne’s only notable defeat in his career and kept him leading an army into Iberia again.
  • In 812, a second Battle occurred at the pass at Orreaga. The son of Charlemagne, Louis the Pious, then King of Aquitaine, crossed the Pyrenees “to settle matters” with Iruña. As he was returning north through the pass, he was, like his father before him, ambushed by Basque warriors. However, he was able to escape as he had taken Basque women and children hostage. Having successfully escaped the region, he then appointed Franks to lead the local populace.
  • The third Battle of Orreaga occurred in 824. This again involved the Basques fighting the Franks, though this time the Basques were allied with the Banu Qasi. The Basques had been agitating against Frankish rule and so an expedition comprised of Basque soldiers from Vasconia and Frankish soldiers was sent to squash the rebellion. They sacked Iruña without resistance and then headed north, again through the pass. As in 778, the invading force was ambushed by a combined Basque/Banu Qasi force that had hidden in the forest. One of the most important results of this battle is that it led to the establishment of the Kingdom of Pamplona, ruled by Eneko Arista.
  • The last Battle of Orreaga was in 1813, nearly 1000 years after the previous one. In this case, the participants didn’t include Basques, but rather saw French forces fighting a combined British-Portuguese army. During the Peninsular War, the Anglo-Portuguese forces had moved to capture both Donostia and Iruña. While Arthur Wellesley‘s forces were split to take both Basque cities, the French had regrouped after their recent defeat and marched on the pass. They met a small brigade Wellesley had stationed there that they completely overwhelmed, forcing Wellesley’s forces to retreat.

A full list of all of Buber’s Basque Facts of the Week can be found in the Archive.

Primary sources: Roncevaux Pass, Wikipedia; Battle of Roncevaux Pass, Wikipedia; Battle of Roncevaux Pass (824), Wikipedia; Battle of Roncesvalles (1813), Wikipedia; Battle of Roncevaux Pass (778), Fandom; Orreagako istilua (812), Wikipedia

Basque Fact of the Week, Euskara, History

Basque Fact of the Week: The Links Between Gascon and Euskara

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Last week I wrote about the Valley of Aran, which has historical and linguistic connections to the Basque Country. In the Valley of Aran, the local language is Occitan, which is related to Gascon, which has its own connections to Euskara. In fact, the words Gascon and Basque come from the same Latin root.

The Duchy of Gascony in 1150. Image from Wikipedia.
  • Gascon is related to Occitan. Some linguists consider it a dialect of Occitan while others classify it as its own language. Regardless, the two languages are clearly related: both Romance languages derived from Latin. One way they differ is in the underlying linguistic substrate.
  • While Occitan has influences from the Gauls, Gascon is influenced by Euskara. There are a few ways this influence manifests itself in the language:
    • Words that in Latin would begin with /f/ instead begin with /h/.
    • Words cannot start with /r/. Instead, such words have to have a vowel added to their beginning.
    • There are some words in Gascon that don’t appear in other Romance languages. One example is sarri, meaning chamois, which in Basque is sarrio.
    • Some of these features are actually something Gascon has in common with Spanish and Portuguese, implying a Basque influence on those languages as well.
  • Finally, the word Gascon comes from same Latin root vasco/vasconem that gives us the word Basque. Gascon is primarily spoken in southwest France, in Gascony and Béarn. At one time, the region was part of the Duchy of Gascony or, alternatively, the Duchy of Vasconia. There are dialects of Gascon, such as Aranese which is a co-official language of Catalunya.
  • Similarly, Gascon has influenced Basque. One clear example is the word for glass, which in Basque is beira. Further, Gascon was widely spoken in Basque cities such as Donostia at least until the 18th century.
  • Some historians suggest that Gascons are Proto-Basques that became Romanized.

A full list of all of Buber’s Basque Facts of the Week can be found in the Archive.

Primary sources: Gascon dialect, Wikipedia; Gascón (occitano), Wikipedia; Cierbide Martinena, Ricardo. Gascón. Auñamendi Encyclopedia. Available at: https://aunamendi.eusko-ikaskuntza.eus/en/gascon/ar-149610/

Random Bits of Basqueness

Random Bits of Basqueness

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Murals found on a wall in Santa Fe, New Mexico.

Basque Fact of the Week, Euskara, History

Basque Fact of the Week: The Basque Connections of the Valley of Aran

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The Val d’Aran, or Valley of Aran, lies in the northwest corner of Catalunya. As such, it is a bit of an outlier. It is the only part of Catalunya that sits on the northern side of the Pyrenees. It has its own language, Aranese, that is co-official with Spanish and Catalan. The region also has a strong historical connection with the Basques. In fact, its name comes from the Basque language.

The Valley of Aran. Photo from Active Traveler.
  • The Valley of Aran, called Val d’Aran in the local dialect of Occitan Aranese, owes its name to the Basque language. Aran comes from the Basque word haran, which means valley. So, Valley of Aran is a tautotoponym, or a place name that has the same word twice: Valley of the Valley.
  • In Escunhau, one of the towns of within the Valley of Aran, there sits a church with the words ILVRBERRIXO / ANDEREXO inscribed on a piece of a tombstone that was discovered in 1881 within the walls of the church. (The current inscription is a replica of the original, which was removed and placed in a museum.) The original inscription dates to Roman times. These are ancient Basque or Aquitanian names.
  • There are a number of toponyms of Basque origin in the area, pointing to the fact that Basque was spoken at least this far at some point in history. To highlight just a few (a bigger list can be found here): Benabarre, Zoriza, Lascuarre, Axpe, Javierregay, Isabena, Barasona, Hirbike, Ballobar, and Urria.
  • Saint Faith, Santa Fe in Spanish and Sainte Foy in French, was killed in this valley. She was a young girl of just 12 or 13 who was first roasted and then beheaded for defending her Christian beliefs in the late third or early fourth century. At least one reference says that she was killed “among her fellow Basques” (though there she is called Saint Eusebia). I haven’t been able to find much more about her potential Basque connection, but the song that recounts her life, the Song of Saint Fides, says that the Basques know this song/story well.

A full list of all of Buber’s Basque Facts of the Week can be found in the Archive.

Primary sources: Arango harana, Wikipedia; Val d’Aran, Wikipedia

Basque Fact of the Week, History

Basque Fact of the Week: Rights of Women in 1500s Bizkaia

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The New Fueros of Bizkaia were approved in 1526 – 500 years ago this year. These fueros codified the customs and practices of the people of Bizkaia – it didn’t establish any new laws per se, but formalized those that already existed. Elixabete Piñol Olaeta looked back at how specifically women were mentioned in those fueros, finding that they had quite a strong legal standing for the time.

The 1607 painting Boda de hidalgos en Begoña by Francisco de Mendieta y Retes. Image from the Museo Virtual de Ecologia Humana.
  • The family structure as codified in those fueros was quite egalitarian. Women had almost identical rights as men. They shared equally in the family assets. That is, the husband wasn’t in control of the family assets but rather the husband and wife each held a 50% share. This is regardless of what they brought into the family at the time of marriage.
  • The husband couldn’t sell joint assets without explicit permission of the wife. If the husband got into debt somehow (such as gambling), it was explicitly prohibited from seizing the woman’s part of the assets to pay that debt. It was recognized that the wife needed those assets to keep the rest of the family functioning.
  • The dowry wasn’t just a responsibility of the woman. In fact, who paid the dowry depended on who joined whose family – the etorkina. If the man joined the woman’s family at her baserria, for example, the man paid the dowry. What each person brought into the family was documented and notarized.
  • The heads of households could choose any child as an heir. It didn’t have to be the first born and it didn’t have to be a male. Rather, they were to pick the “most suitable, capable, competent, or advantageous to the House to inherit.” Importantly, they could pick a sole heir so that the family property and wealth was not broken up into smaller and smaller parts.
  • The exception to this is if the husband or wife died without a will, in which case their assets were split amongst all children equally. To avoid the fragmentation of their assets, the couple would often grant each other authority to make choices about heirs in their marriage contract. In the case that the man had died, the women had full authority to choose the family heir.
  • While the age of majority was 25 at the time, once either a man or woman reached the age of 18, they could petition for emancipation from guardianship.
  • Either the husband or wife could dispose of their share of their assets without permission of the other. Or they could “jointly give, donate, or bequeath their property to one of their many children.” The point is, they could do either and one spouse didn’t have to have permission of the other.
  • As there weren’t enough scribes to wander the mountains and help couples prepare wills, it was allowed for the couples to prepare their own but they had to have three witnesses. One had to be a woman. The rationale was that a woman provided “a guarantee and safeguard for the truthful, loyal, and faithful transmission of the testator’s final wishes.”

A full list of all of Buber’s Basque Facts of the Week can be found in the Archive.

Primary sources: La mujer en el Fuero Nuevo de Bizkaia de 1526 by Elixabete Piñol Olaeta, Deia

Basque Fact of the Week, Music, People

Basque Fact of the Week: Composer Maurice Ravel

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I’m a metalhead. I like my music loud, aggressive, and angry. However, I have a soft spot for anything Basque, including Ravel. Perhaps the only classical CD I’ve ever owned was a compilation of some of Ravel’s greatest pieces, including Boléro.

Maurice Ravel sitting at his piano with his ever-present cigarette in hand. Photo found on The Listener’s Club.
  • Joseph Maurice Ravel was born in the Basque village of Ziburu (Ciboure in French), in the province of Lapurdi, on March 7, 1875. His father, Joseph, was a Swiss engineer. His mother, Marie Deluarte or Delouart, was from Ziburu herself though she grew up in Madrid. Shortly after Maurice was born, the family moved to Paris.
  • When Maurice was 14 years old, he entered the Paris Conservatory. He had begun playing the piano when he was 7, which was a talent cultivated by his father. Indeed, his father had been a pianist himself and had even attended the Conservatory in Geneva before deciding on a career in engineering. Maurice began taking piano lessons with Henri Ghys and a few years later began studying harmony with Charles-René. His earliest compositions date from this time.
  • Ravel won the Conservatory’s piano contest in 1891. Other students outshone him as a pianist but he really started to grow as a composer. However, he was a student that marched to his own beat and didn’t take lessons well. In 1895, he was expelled from the Conservatory, after which he focused on composing. A few years later he was readmitted to the Conservatory where he studied composition with Gabriel Fauré. However, he ran afoul of the director of the Conservatory and was again expelled in 1900.
  • The first few performances of his compositions were met with mixed reviews. However, Ravel genuinely only cared about one critic – himself – and so these did nothing to dissuade him in his endeavors. From 1901 to 1905, Ravel competed for the Prix de Rome, the top prize for young composers, but never won. The last year he competed, he was eliminated in the first round, which caused a scandal and led to significant reorganization of the Conservatory. His first concert outside of France, in 1909 in London, was received favorably.
  • Ravel’s first opera debuted in 1911. Its theme – a bedroom farce – was only moderately well received by the opera-going public but it gained more popularity in the 1920s. A year later, he had three ballets debut. One was met with outstanding success but others had a more mixed reception.
  • A few years later, World War I broke out. Ravel tried to join the French Air Force but was rejected because of his age and a small heart issue. At the age of 40, he was finally admitted as a truck driver. Amongst other duties, he delivered munitions during German bombardments. His health, already less than ideal due to hard work on his compositions, declined further as he suffered from both insomnia and digestive issues and, later, frostbite. His health, both mental and physical, deteriorated further when his mother died in 1917.
  • As some in France responded to the war by wanting to ban performances of German music, Ravel objected that it would lead to isolation of French musicians. In response, his own music was banned.
  • After the war, Ravel continued composing though his output diminished to roughly one piece per year. During this time, he started incorporating elements of jazz into his pieces as well. At the end of the 1920s, he composed his most famous piece, Boléro. It was well received, partially to Ravel’s chagrin as he claimed it had “no music in it.”
  • In the early part of the next decade, he wrote a piece for pianist Paul Wittgenstein who had lost an arm in the war. The piece was written for just one hand and became regarded as a great work.
  • In 1932, Ravel was in a taxi accident where he damaged his head. He had already been experiencing memory issues and this injury exacerbated them. He stopped composing. After a failed surgery to try to alleviate the symptoms, Ravel died on December 28, 1937.
  • In all, Ravel composed some 85 pieces, several unfinished or incomplete. One of those was a concerto with Basque themes, a reflection of the influence his mother had on his life and imagination.
  • While Ravel declined all state honors from France, he did accept a number of foreign awards, including an honorary doctorate from the University of Oxford. After he died, his brother Édouard turned Ravel’s country home into a museum, which still operates today.

A full list of all of Buber’s Basque Facts of the Week can be found in the Archive.

Primary sources: Maurice Ravel, Wikipedia; Mazorra Incera, Luis; Ravel Deluarte, Maurice. Auñamendi Encyclopedia, 2026. Available at: https://aunamendi.eusko-ikaskuntza.eus/en/ravel-deluarte-maurice/ar-124708/; Maurice-Ravel.net